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Fluconazole

Year 2018, Volume: 9 Issue: 1, 67 - 75, 25.04.2018

Abstract

Fluconazole is one of the most commonly-used triazoles in clinic. Like other azoles, it is a compound composed of aromatic rings. Fluconazole is effective against Candida albicans, C. dubliniensis, C. guilliermondii, C. kefyr, C. parapsilosis, C. lusitaniae, and C. tropicalis. C. krusei is naturally resistant to fluconazole and many strains of C. glabrata are either resistant or less sensitive. Fluconazole exerts its antifungal effects by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, which is an integral part of the fungal cell membrane. Development of resistance is rare, but when occurs, it is in the form of cross-resistance to all azoles. In order to predict the therapeutic effectiveness of fluconazole in an individual case; the ratios of the maximum drug concentration (Cmax) on fluconazole concentration – time curve, the area under the curve, and the time needed to reach the serum drug concentration above minimum inhibitory concentration (Ttau) to the minimum inhibitory concentration should be taken into account. Fluconazole may be administered via oral or intravenous route. Oral and intravenous pharmacokinetics of fluconazole are similar since the drug is absorbed almost completely (≥%90) from the gastrointestinal system. Fluconazole penetrates into all body fluids, including cerebrospinal fluid and human milk. Main indications include blastomycosis, candidemia, systemic candida infections, candidiasis prophylaxis in high-risk patients, coccidioidomycosis, and cryptococcosis. In clinical usage, it is thought that fluconazole will interact favorably with anidulafungin, caspofungin, amphotericin B, or flucytosine in either simultaneous or sequential usage. Concomitant administration with other drugs which act as hepatic CYP2C9 or CYP3A4 isoenzyme substrates or prolong the QT interval requires close monitoring. Although fluconazole may cause a congenital anomaly syndrome in infants born to women who have received the drug in high-doses in the first trimestre, its side effects are rare.

References

  • American Society of Health System Pharmacists, Inc., DynaMed [Internet]. Ipswich (MA): EBSCO Information Services. 1995 - . Record No. 233400, Fluconazole; [updated 2011 Aug 03, cited 2017 Dec 13]; [about 45 screens]. Available from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=dnh&AN=233400&site=dynamed-live&scope=site.
  • Andes D., Marchillo K., Conklin R., et al., Pharmacodynamics of a new triazole, posaconazole, in a murine model of disseminated candidiasis, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48(1):137-142 (2004).
  • Andes D., Marchillo K., Stamstad T., Conklin R., In vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a new triazole, voriconazole, in a murine candidiasis model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47(10):3165-3169 (2003).
  • Andes D., van Ogtrop M., Characterization and quantitation of the pharmacodynamics of fluconazole in a neutropenic murine disseminated candidiasis infection model, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 43(9):2116-2120 (1999).
  • Arca E., Taştan H. B., Akar A., Kurumlu Z., Gür A. R., An open, randomized, comparative study of oral fluconazole, itraconazole and terbinafine therapy in onychomycosis, J. Dermatolog. Treat., 13(1):3-9 (2002).
  • Barchiesi F., Schimizzi A. M., Caselli F., et al., Interactions between triazoles and amphotericin B against Cryptococcus neoformans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 44(9):2435-2441 (2000).
  • Bii C. C., Kose J., Taguchi H., et al., Pneumocystis jirovecii and microbiological findings in children with severe pneumonia in Nairobi, Kenya, Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis., 10(11):1286-1291 (2006).
  • Castanheira M., Messer S. A., Rhomberg P. R., Pfaller M. A., Antifungal susceptibility patterns of a global collection of fungal isolates: results of the SENTRY Antifungal Surveillance Program (2013), Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 85(2):200-204 (2016).
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clinical Alert to U.S. Healthcare Facilities - June 2016 | Fungal Diseases | CDC. Fungal Diseases. http://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/candidiasis/candida-auris-alert.html. Published 2016. Accessed November 25, 2016.
  • Chang C-H., Young-Xu Y., Kurth T., Orav JE., Chan A. K., The safety of oral antifungal treatments for superficial dermatophytosis and onychomycosis: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Med., 120(9):791-798 (2007).
  • Chapman S. W., Dismukes W. E., Proia L. A., et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of blastomycosis: 2008 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America., Clin. Infect. Dis., 46(12):1801-1812 (2008).
  • Clancy C. J., Yu V. L., Morris A. J., Snydman D. R., Nguyen M. H., Fluconazole MIC and the fluconazole dose/MIC ratio correlate with therapeutic response among patients with candidemia, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 49(8):3171-3177 (2005).
  • Cuesta I., Bielza C., Cuenca-Estrella M., Larranaga P., Rodriguez-Tudela J. L. evaluation by data mining techniques of fluconazole breakpoints established by the clinical and laboratory standards institute (CLSI) and comparison with those of the european committee on antimicrobial susceptibility testing (EUCAST). Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54(4):1541-1546 (2010).
  • Dannaoui E., Abdul M., Arpin M., et al., Results obtained with various antifungal susceptibility testing methods do not predict early clinical outcome in patients with cryptococcosis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 50(7):2464-2470 (2006).
  • Fluconazole - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluconazole. Published 2016. Accessed November 7, 2016.
  • Fluconazole. Post T. W., ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. http://www.uptodate.com (Accessed on December 13, 2017.).
  • Force R. W. Fluconazole concentrations in breast milk, Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J., 14(3):235-236 (1995).
  • Galgiani J. N., Ampel N. M., Blair J. E., et al., Coccidioidomycosis, Clin. Infect. Dis. 41(9):1217-1223 (2005).
  • Groll A. H., Kolve H., Antifungal agents: in vitro susceptibility testing, pharmacodynamics, and prospects for combination therapy, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 23(4):256-270 (2004).
  • Groll A. H., Mickiene D., Petraitis V., et al., Compartmental pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of the antifungal echinocandin lipopeptide micafungin (FK463) in rabbits, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 45(12):3322-3327 (2001).
  • Kathuria S., Singh P., Sharma C., et al., Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris Misidentified as Candida haemulonii: Characterization by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry and DNA Sequencing and Its Antifungal Susceptibility Profile Variability by Vitek 2, CL, J. Clin. Microbiol., 6(53):1823-1830 (2015).
  • Kauffman C. A., Bustamante B., Chapman S. W., Pappas P. G., Clinical practice guidelines for the management of sporotrichosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin. Infect. Dis., 45(10):1255-1265 (2007).
  • Kimberlin D. W., Brady M. T., Jackson M. A., Long S. S., Red Book: 2015 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases 30th ed., American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL (2015).
  • Kiraz N., Dag I., Yamac M., et al., Synergistic activities of three triazoles with caspofungin against Candida glabrata isolates determined by time-kill, Etest, and disk diffusion methods, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother, 54(5):2244-2247 (2010).
  • Kisgen J., Lippincott Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology 6th edition, Wolters Kluwer, Hong Kong (2015).
  • Larkin E., Hager C., Chandra J., et al., The Emerging Pathogen Candida auris: Growth Phenotype, Virulence Factors, Activity of Antifungals, and Effect of SCY-078, a Novel Glucan Synthesis Inhibitor, on Growth Morphology and Biofilm Formation, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 61(5):e02396-16 (2017).
  • Lee S. C., Fung C. P., Huang J. S., et al. Clinical correlates of antifungal macrodilution susceptibility test results for non-aıds patients with severe candida infections treated with fluconazole. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 44(10):2715-2718 (2000).
  • Lortholary O., Petrikkos G., Akova M., et al., European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases guideline for the diagnosis and management of Candida diseases 2012: patients with HIV infection or AIDS, Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 18:68-77 (2012).
  • Martinez M., López-Ribot J. L., Kirkpatrick W. R., et al., Replacement of Candida albicans with C. dubliniensis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with oropharyngeal candidiasis treated with fluconazole. J. Clin. Microbiol., 40(9):3135-3139 (2002).
  • Menichetti F., Fiorio M., Tosti A., et al., High-dose fluconazole therapy for cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS. Clin. Infect. Dis., 22(5):838-840 (1996).
  • Pai M. P., Turpin R. S., Garey K. W., Association of fluconazole area under the concentration-time curve/MIC and dose/MIC ratios with mortality in nonneutropenic patients with candidemia, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother, 51(1):35-39 (2007).
  • Pappas P. G., Kauffman C. A., Andes D. R., et al., Clinical Practice Guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis., 62(4):e1-50 (2016).
  • Perfect J. R., Dismukes W. E., Dromer F., et al., Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin. Infect. Dis., 50(3):291-322 (2010).
  • Pfaller M. A., Andes D., Diekema D. J., Espinel-Ingroff A., Sheehan D., CLSI Subcommittee for Antifungal Susceptibility Testing, Wild-type MIC distributions, epidemiological cutoff values and species-specific clinical breakpoints for fluconazole and Candida: Time for harmonization of CLSI and EUCAST broth microdilution methods, Drug Resist. Updat., 13(6):180-195 (2010).
  • Pfaller M. A., Diekema D. J., International Fungal Surveillance Participant Group, Twelve years of fluconazole in clinical practice: global trends in species distribution and fluconazole susceptibility of bloodstream isolates of Candida, Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 10 Suppl 1:11-23 (2004).
  • Pfaller M. A., Diekema D. J., Sheehan D. J., Interpretive breakpoints for fluconazole and Candida revisited: a blueprint for the future of antifungal susceptibility testing, Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 19(2):435-447 (2006).
  • Rex J. H., Pfaller M. A., Has Antifungal Susceptibility Testing Come of Age?, Clin. Infect. Dis., 35(8):982-989 (2002).
  • Rex J. H., Pfaller M. A., Walsh T. J., et al. Antifungal susceptibility testing: practical aspects and current challenges, Clin. Microbiol Rev., 14(4):643-58 (2001).
  • Ridgway M. D., Clark M. H., Fluconazole - Pharmacology, Clinical Uses and Health Effects. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York (2013).
  • Rodriguez-Tudela J. L., Almirante B., Rodriguez-Pardo D., et al. Correlation of the MIC and dose/MIC ratio of fluconazole to the therapeutic response of patients with mucosal candidiasis and candidemia, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51(10):3599-3604 (2007).
  • Rosato A., Piarulli M., Schiavone B. I. P., et al. In vitro synergy testing of anidulafungin with fluconazole, tioconazole, 5-flucytosine and amphotericin B against some Candida spp., Med. Chem., 8(4):690-698 (2012).
  • Sanguinetti M., Posteraro B., La Sorda M., et al., Role of AFR1, an ABC transporter-encoding gene, in the in vivo response to fluconazole and virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans, Infect. Immun., 74(2):1352-1359 (2006).
  • Santos J. R. A., Ribeiro N. Q., Bastos R. W., et al., High-dose fluconazole in combination with amphotericin B is more efficient than monotherapy in murine model of cryptococcosis, Sci. Rep., 7(1):4661 (2017).
  • Schwarz P., Dromer F., Lortholary O., Dannaoui E., In vitro interaction of flucytosine with conventional and new antifungals against Cryptococcus neoformans clinical isolates, Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 47(10):3361-3364 (2003).
  • Tortorano A. M., Prigitano A., Esposto M. C., et al., European Confederation of Medical Mycology (ECMM) epidemiological survey on invasive infections due to Fusarium species in Europe, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 33(9):1623-1630 (2014).
  • U. S. Food and Drug Administration, Fluconazole (Diflucan): Drug Safety Communication - FDA Evaluating Study Examining Use of Oral Fluconazole (Diflucan) in Pregnancy, Safety Alerts for Human Medical Products, https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm497656.htm, Published 2016, Accessed December 15, 2017.
  • Vanden Bossche H., Warnock D. W., Dupont B., et al., Mechanisms and clinical impact of antifungal drug resistance, J. Med. Vet. Mycol., 32 Suppl 1:189-202 (1994).
  • Wheat L. J., Freifeld A. G., Kleiman M. B., et al., Clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with histoplasmosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 45(7):807-825 (2007).
  • Workowski K. A., Bolan G. A., Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR, 64(RR-03):1-137 (2015).
  • Yildiran S. T., Fothergill A. W., Sutton D. A., Rinaldi M. G., In vitro susceptibilities of cerebrospinal fluid isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans collected during a ten-year period against fluconazole, voriconazole and posaconazole (SCH56592). Mycoses, 45(9-10):378-383 (2002).

Flukonazol

Year 2018, Volume: 9 Issue: 1, 67 - 75, 25.04.2018

Abstract

Flukonazol, klinikte sık kullanılan triazollerdendir. Diğer azoller gibi, aromatik halkalar içeren bir bileşiktir. Flukonazol Candida albicans, C. dubliniensis, C. guilliermondii, C. kefyr, C. parapsilosis, C. lusitaniae ve C. tropicalis'e etkilidir. C. krusei flukonazole doğal dirençli olup C. glabrata'nın birçok suşu da dirençli veya az duyarlıdır. Flukonazol, etkisini mantar hücre membranının önemli bir parçası olan fungal sterol ergosterolün sentezini engelleyerek gerçekleştirir. Flukonazole direnç gelişmesi nadir bir olaydır; ancak gerçekleştiğinde çoğunlukla tüm azollere çapraz direnç şeklindedir. Flukonazol ile tedavi başarısını öngörmede flukonazol konsantrasyonu - zaman eğrisinde maksimum ilaç konsantrasyonunun (Cmax), eğri altında kalan alanın ve minimum inhibitör konsantrasyon üzerindeki serum ilaç konsantrasyonuna ulaşmak için gerekli sürenin (Ttau) minimum inhibitör konsantrasyon değerine oranlarının değerlendirilmesi önerilmektedir. Flukonazol, oral yolla veya intravenöz infüzyon şeklinde verilir. Tamamına yakını (%≥90) mide-bağırsak yolundan emildiği için, flukonazolün oral ve intravenöz farmakokinetiği benzerdir. Flukonazol, beyin-omurilik sıvısı da dahil olmak üzere süte ve bütün vücut sıvılarına geçer. Başlıca endikasyonları blastomikozis, kandidemi ile yaygın kandida enfeksiyonları, yüksek riskli hastalarda kandidiyaz profilaksisi, koksidiyoidomikozis ve kriptokokozistir. Klinik kullanımda anidulafungin, kaspofungin, amfoterisin B ve flusitozinle birlikte kullanılmasının olumlu etkileşimlerle sonuçlanabileceği düşünülmektedir. Hepatik CYP2C9 veya CYP3A4 izoenzimlerin substratı olarak işlev gören ve QT aralığını uzatan diğer ilaçlarla birlikte kullanımı, yakın izlem gerektirir. Gebeliklerinin ilk trimesterinde yüksek dozda flukonazol alan kadınların bebeklerinde konjenital bir anomali sendromuna neden olabilse de yan etkileri nadirdir.

References

  • American Society of Health System Pharmacists, Inc., DynaMed [Internet]. Ipswich (MA): EBSCO Information Services. 1995 - . Record No. 233400, Fluconazole; [updated 2011 Aug 03, cited 2017 Dec 13]; [about 45 screens]. Available from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=dnh&AN=233400&site=dynamed-live&scope=site.
  • Andes D., Marchillo K., Conklin R., et al., Pharmacodynamics of a new triazole, posaconazole, in a murine model of disseminated candidiasis, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48(1):137-142 (2004).
  • Andes D., Marchillo K., Stamstad T., Conklin R., In vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a new triazole, voriconazole, in a murine candidiasis model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47(10):3165-3169 (2003).
  • Andes D., van Ogtrop M., Characterization and quantitation of the pharmacodynamics of fluconazole in a neutropenic murine disseminated candidiasis infection model, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 43(9):2116-2120 (1999).
  • Arca E., Taştan H. B., Akar A., Kurumlu Z., Gür A. R., An open, randomized, comparative study of oral fluconazole, itraconazole and terbinafine therapy in onychomycosis, J. Dermatolog. Treat., 13(1):3-9 (2002).
  • Barchiesi F., Schimizzi A. M., Caselli F., et al., Interactions between triazoles and amphotericin B against Cryptococcus neoformans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 44(9):2435-2441 (2000).
  • Bii C. C., Kose J., Taguchi H., et al., Pneumocystis jirovecii and microbiological findings in children with severe pneumonia in Nairobi, Kenya, Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis., 10(11):1286-1291 (2006).
  • Castanheira M., Messer S. A., Rhomberg P. R., Pfaller M. A., Antifungal susceptibility patterns of a global collection of fungal isolates: results of the SENTRY Antifungal Surveillance Program (2013), Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 85(2):200-204 (2016).
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Clinical Alert to U.S. Healthcare Facilities - June 2016 | Fungal Diseases | CDC. Fungal Diseases. http://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/candidiasis/candida-auris-alert.html. Published 2016. Accessed November 25, 2016.
  • Chang C-H., Young-Xu Y., Kurth T., Orav JE., Chan A. K., The safety of oral antifungal treatments for superficial dermatophytosis and onychomycosis: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Med., 120(9):791-798 (2007).
  • Chapman S. W., Dismukes W. E., Proia L. A., et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of blastomycosis: 2008 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America., Clin. Infect. Dis., 46(12):1801-1812 (2008).
  • Clancy C. J., Yu V. L., Morris A. J., Snydman D. R., Nguyen M. H., Fluconazole MIC and the fluconazole dose/MIC ratio correlate with therapeutic response among patients with candidemia, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 49(8):3171-3177 (2005).
  • Cuesta I., Bielza C., Cuenca-Estrella M., Larranaga P., Rodriguez-Tudela J. L. evaluation by data mining techniques of fluconazole breakpoints established by the clinical and laboratory standards institute (CLSI) and comparison with those of the european committee on antimicrobial susceptibility testing (EUCAST). Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 54(4):1541-1546 (2010).
  • Dannaoui E., Abdul M., Arpin M., et al., Results obtained with various antifungal susceptibility testing methods do not predict early clinical outcome in patients with cryptococcosis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 50(7):2464-2470 (2006).
  • Fluconazole - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluconazole. Published 2016. Accessed November 7, 2016.
  • Fluconazole. Post T. W., ed. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: UpToDate Inc. http://www.uptodate.com (Accessed on December 13, 2017.).
  • Force R. W. Fluconazole concentrations in breast milk, Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J., 14(3):235-236 (1995).
  • Galgiani J. N., Ampel N. M., Blair J. E., et al., Coccidioidomycosis, Clin. Infect. Dis. 41(9):1217-1223 (2005).
  • Groll A. H., Kolve H., Antifungal agents: in vitro susceptibility testing, pharmacodynamics, and prospects for combination therapy, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 23(4):256-270 (2004).
  • Groll A. H., Mickiene D., Petraitis V., et al., Compartmental pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of the antifungal echinocandin lipopeptide micafungin (FK463) in rabbits, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 45(12):3322-3327 (2001).
  • Kathuria S., Singh P., Sharma C., et al., Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris Misidentified as Candida haemulonii: Characterization by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization-Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry and DNA Sequencing and Its Antifungal Susceptibility Profile Variability by Vitek 2, CL, J. Clin. Microbiol., 6(53):1823-1830 (2015).
  • Kauffman C. A., Bustamante B., Chapman S. W., Pappas P. G., Clinical practice guidelines for the management of sporotrichosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin. Infect. Dis., 45(10):1255-1265 (2007).
  • Kimberlin D. W., Brady M. T., Jackson M. A., Long S. S., Red Book: 2015 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases 30th ed., American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL (2015).
  • Kiraz N., Dag I., Yamac M., et al., Synergistic activities of three triazoles with caspofungin against Candida glabrata isolates determined by time-kill, Etest, and disk diffusion methods, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother, 54(5):2244-2247 (2010).
  • Kisgen J., Lippincott Illustrated Reviews: Pharmacology 6th edition, Wolters Kluwer, Hong Kong (2015).
  • Larkin E., Hager C., Chandra J., et al., The Emerging Pathogen Candida auris: Growth Phenotype, Virulence Factors, Activity of Antifungals, and Effect of SCY-078, a Novel Glucan Synthesis Inhibitor, on Growth Morphology and Biofilm Formation, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 61(5):e02396-16 (2017).
  • Lee S. C., Fung C. P., Huang J. S., et al. Clinical correlates of antifungal macrodilution susceptibility test results for non-aıds patients with severe candida infections treated with fluconazole. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 44(10):2715-2718 (2000).
  • Lortholary O., Petrikkos G., Akova M., et al., European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases guideline for the diagnosis and management of Candida diseases 2012: patients with HIV infection or AIDS, Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 18:68-77 (2012).
  • Martinez M., López-Ribot J. L., Kirkpatrick W. R., et al., Replacement of Candida albicans with C. dubliniensis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with oropharyngeal candidiasis treated with fluconazole. J. Clin. Microbiol., 40(9):3135-3139 (2002).
  • Menichetti F., Fiorio M., Tosti A., et al., High-dose fluconazole therapy for cryptococcal meningitis in patients with AIDS. Clin. Infect. Dis., 22(5):838-840 (1996).
  • Pai M. P., Turpin R. S., Garey K. W., Association of fluconazole area under the concentration-time curve/MIC and dose/MIC ratios with mortality in nonneutropenic patients with candidemia, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother, 51(1):35-39 (2007).
  • Pappas P. G., Kauffman C. A., Andes D. R., et al., Clinical Practice Guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis., 62(4):e1-50 (2016).
  • Perfect J. R., Dismukes W. E., Dromer F., et al., Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Clin. Infect. Dis., 50(3):291-322 (2010).
  • Pfaller M. A., Andes D., Diekema D. J., Espinel-Ingroff A., Sheehan D., CLSI Subcommittee for Antifungal Susceptibility Testing, Wild-type MIC distributions, epidemiological cutoff values and species-specific clinical breakpoints for fluconazole and Candida: Time for harmonization of CLSI and EUCAST broth microdilution methods, Drug Resist. Updat., 13(6):180-195 (2010).
  • Pfaller M. A., Diekema D. J., International Fungal Surveillance Participant Group, Twelve years of fluconazole in clinical practice: global trends in species distribution and fluconazole susceptibility of bloodstream isolates of Candida, Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 10 Suppl 1:11-23 (2004).
  • Pfaller M. A., Diekema D. J., Sheehan D. J., Interpretive breakpoints for fluconazole and Candida revisited: a blueprint for the future of antifungal susceptibility testing, Clin. Microbiol. Rev., 19(2):435-447 (2006).
  • Rex J. H., Pfaller M. A., Has Antifungal Susceptibility Testing Come of Age?, Clin. Infect. Dis., 35(8):982-989 (2002).
  • Rex J. H., Pfaller M. A., Walsh T. J., et al. Antifungal susceptibility testing: practical aspects and current challenges, Clin. Microbiol Rev., 14(4):643-58 (2001).
  • Ridgway M. D., Clark M. H., Fluconazole - Pharmacology, Clinical Uses and Health Effects. Nova Science Publishers, Inc., New York (2013).
  • Rodriguez-Tudela J. L., Almirante B., Rodriguez-Pardo D., et al. Correlation of the MIC and dose/MIC ratio of fluconazole to the therapeutic response of patients with mucosal candidiasis and candidemia, Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51(10):3599-3604 (2007).
  • Rosato A., Piarulli M., Schiavone B. I. P., et al. In vitro synergy testing of anidulafungin with fluconazole, tioconazole, 5-flucytosine and amphotericin B against some Candida spp., Med. Chem., 8(4):690-698 (2012).
  • Sanguinetti M., Posteraro B., La Sorda M., et al., Role of AFR1, an ABC transporter-encoding gene, in the in vivo response to fluconazole and virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans, Infect. Immun., 74(2):1352-1359 (2006).
  • Santos J. R. A., Ribeiro N. Q., Bastos R. W., et al., High-dose fluconazole in combination with amphotericin B is more efficient than monotherapy in murine model of cryptococcosis, Sci. Rep., 7(1):4661 (2017).
  • Schwarz P., Dromer F., Lortholary O., Dannaoui E., In vitro interaction of flucytosine with conventional and new antifungals against Cryptococcus neoformans clinical isolates, Antimicrob Agents Chemother., 47(10):3361-3364 (2003).
  • Tortorano A. M., Prigitano A., Esposto M. C., et al., European Confederation of Medical Mycology (ECMM) epidemiological survey on invasive infections due to Fusarium species in Europe, Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 33(9):1623-1630 (2014).
  • U. S. Food and Drug Administration, Fluconazole (Diflucan): Drug Safety Communication - FDA Evaluating Study Examining Use of Oral Fluconazole (Diflucan) in Pregnancy, Safety Alerts for Human Medical Products, https://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm497656.htm, Published 2016, Accessed December 15, 2017.
  • Vanden Bossche H., Warnock D. W., Dupont B., et al., Mechanisms and clinical impact of antifungal drug resistance, J. Med. Vet. Mycol., 32 Suppl 1:189-202 (1994).
  • Wheat L. J., Freifeld A. G., Kleiman M. B., et al., Clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with histoplasmosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 45(7):807-825 (2007).
  • Workowski K. A., Bolan G. A., Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR, 64(RR-03):1-137 (2015).
  • Yildiran S. T., Fothergill A. W., Sutton D. A., Rinaldi M. G., In vitro susceptibilities of cerebrospinal fluid isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans collected during a ten-year period against fluconazole, voriconazole and posaconazole (SCH56592). Mycoses, 45(9-10):378-383 (2002).
There are 50 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Journal Section MYCOLOGY
Authors

Selim Öncel 0000-0002-5493-1818

Sema Aşkın Keçeli This is me

Publication Date April 25, 2018
Published in Issue Year 2018 Volume: 9 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Öncel, S., & Keçeli, S. A. (2018). Flukonazol. Mantar Dergisi, 9(1), 67-75. https://doi.org/10.30708/mantar.371030

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