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Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 5 Sayı: 2, 322 - 327, 01.05.2022
https://doi.org/10.19127/bshealthscience.1064168

Öz

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a widespread kind of dementia and is one of progressive neurodegenerative diseases that leads to permanent damage to neurons. It has known that genetic and non-genetic factors play a role in the etiopathogenesis of AD. The accepted genetic factors are mutations on genetic codes especially on PSEN1, PSEN2, and APP genes. However, non-genetic factors include advanced age, exposure to occupational factors, current disorders, and lifestyle characteristics of the person. The final AD diagnosis can establish by histopathological examination of the brain after death. Pathologically, AD has two distinguishing features. Of these, beta-amyloid (Aβ) neurotic plaques are protein aggregates outside of nerve cells in the brain, whereas neurofibrillary tangles are structures found inside cells. The main component of amyloid plaques is Aβ, and the main component of neurofibrillary tangles is tau protein. Despite current therapies for Alzheimer’s disease, no definitive treatment is available. Today, preventive and curative treatment approaches for the disease include cholinesterase inhibitors, neurotrophic factors, NMDA-receptor antagonists, HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, estrogen replacement therapies, antioxidants, and regular sleep. Despite all these approaches for the disease, further multidisciplinary studies are needed for the definitive treatment of the disease.

Kaynakça

  • Alzheimer A. 1907. Uber eine eigenartige Erkrankung der Hirnrinde. Allg. Zeitschrife Psychiatr, 64: 146-148.
  • Aronson MK, Ooi WL, Geva DL, Masur D, Blau A, Frishman W. 1991. Dementia: age-dependent incidence, prevalence, and mortality in the old old. Arch Internal Medic, 151(5): 989-992.
  • Bertram L, McQueen MB, Mullin K, Blacker D, Tanzi RE. 2007. Systematic meta-analyses of Alzheimer disease genetic association studies: the AlzGene database. Nat Genet, 39: 17-23.
  • Bolatlı G. 2021. Limbik Sistem. In: Taş F (ed) Nörobilim Alanında Multidisipliner Yaklaşımlar. İksad Publications, Ankara, Turkey, pp: 182.
  • Breitner MD, MPH JC. 1996. The role of anti-inflammatory drugs in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Annual Rev Medic, 47(1): 401-411.
  • Castellani RJ, Rolston RK, Smith MA. 2010. Alzheimer disease. Disease-a-month, 56(9): 484-546.
  • Chong PL, Garic D, Shen MD, Lundgaard I, Schwichtenberg AJ. 2022. Sleep, cerebrospinal fluid, and the glymphatic system: A systematic review. Sleep Medic Rev, 61: 101572.
  • Clark CM, Ewbank D, Lee VM-Y, Trojanowski JQ. 1998. Molecular pathology of Alzheimer’s disease: neuronal cytoskeletal abnormalities. In: Growdon JH, Rossor MN (eds) The dementias Vol 19 of Blue books of practical neurology. Butterworth–Heinemann, Boston, US, pp: 304.
  • Ernst RL, Hay JW. 1994. The U.S. economic and social costs of Alzheimer’s disease revisited. Am J Pub Health, 84(8): 1261-1264.
  • Fahnestock M, Garzon D, Holsinger RMD, Michalski B. 2002. Neurotrophic factors and Alzheimer’s disease: are we focusing on the wrong molecule? In Ageing and Dementia Current and Future Concepts. Springer, Vienna, Austria, pp: 252.
  • Feng Y, Wang X. 2012. Antioxidant therapies for Alzheimer's disease. Oxidative Medic Cell Longev, 2012: 472932.
  • Goate A, Owen M, James L, Mullan M, Rossor M, Haynes A, Hardy J. 1989. Predisposing locus for Alzheimer's disease on chromosome 21. The Lancet, 333(8634): 352-355.
  • Graves AB, White E, Koepsell TD, Reifler BV, Van Belle G, Larson EB. 1990. The association between head trauma and Alzheimer's disease. Am J Epidemiol, 131(3): 491-501.
  • Grundman M, Delaney P. 2002. Antioxidant strategies for Alzheimer's disease. Proc Nutri Soc, 61(2): 191-202.
  • Hampel H, Mesulam MM, Cuello AC, Farlow MR, Giacobini E, Grossberg GT, Khachaturian ZS. 2018. The cholinergic system in the pathophysiology and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Brain, 141(7): 1917-1933.
  • Helmer C, Joly P, Letenneur L, Commenges D, Dartigues JF. 2001. Mortality with dementia: results from a French prospective community-based cohort. American J Epidemiol, 154(7): 642-648.
  • Henderson VW, Paganini-Hill A, Emanuel CK. 1994. Estrogen replacement therapy in older women. Comparisons between Alzheimer’s disease cases and nondemented control subjects. Arch Neurol, 51: 896-900.
  • Hutton M, Perez-Tur J, Hardy J. 1998. Genetics of Alzheimer’s disease. Essays Biochem, 33: 117-131.
  • Jack CR, Petersen RC, Xu Y. 2000. Rates of hippocampal atrophy correlate with change in clinical status in aging and AD. Neurol, 55(4): 484-489.
  • Jain KK. 2000. Evaluation of memantine for neuroprotection in dementia. Expert Ppinion Investig Drugs, 9(6): 1397-1406.
  • Jiang T, Yu JT, Tian Y, Tan L. 2013. Epidemiology and etiology of Alzheimer’s disease: from genetic to non-genetic factors. Current Alzheimer Res, 10(8): 852-867.
  • Jick H, Zornberg GL, Jick SS, Seshadri S, Drachman DA. 2000. Statins and the risk of dementia. The Lancet, 356(9242): 1627–1631.
  • Kandiah N, Feldman HH. 2009. Therapeutic potential of statins in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci, 283(1-2): 230-234.
  • Kawas C, Resnick S, Morrison A. 1997. A prospective study of estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease: the Baltimore longitudinal study of aging. Neurol, 48(6): 1517–1521.
  • Koppel R. 2002. Alzheimer’s disease: The Costs to U.S. Businesses in 2002. URL: http://www.alz.org/Media/newsreleases/current/062602ADCosts.pdf (access date: January 03, 2022). Lane CA, Hardy J, Schott JM. 2018. Alzheimer's disease. European J Neurol, 25(1): 59–70.
  • Lendon CL, Ashall F, Goate AM. 1997. Exploring the etiology of Alzheimer disease using molecular genetics. Jama, 277(10): 825-831.
  • Li Q, Wu Y, Chen J, Xuan A, Wang X. 2021. Microglia and immunotherapy in Alzheimer’s disease. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 145(3): 273-278.
  • Lovestone S, Howard R. 1995. Alzheimer’s disease: a treatment in sight? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 59(6): 566-567.
  • Maneno MK, Lee E, Wutoh AK, Zuckerman IH, Jackson P, Lombardo FA. 2006. National patterns of dementia treatment among elderly ambulatory patients. J Natl Med Assoc, 98(3): 430-435.
  • Massoud F, Gauthier S. 2010. Update on the pharmacological treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Curr Neuropharmacol, 8(1): 69-80.
  • McKhann G, Drachman D, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price D, Stadlan EM. 1984. Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: Report of the NINCDS‐ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease. Neurol, 34(7): 939-939.
  • Morris JC. 1991. The neurology of aging: normal versus pathologic change. Geriatrics, 46(8): 47-54.
  • Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL. 2003. Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol, 60(7): 940-946.
  • Mucke L. 2009. Alzheimer's disease. Nature, 461(7266): 895-897.
  • Ohkura T, Isse K, Akazawa K. 1995. Long-term estrogen replacement therapy in female patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type: 7 case reports. Dementia, 6(2): 99-107.
  • Olivares D, Deshpande V, Shi Y, Lahiri D, Greig N, Rogers J, Huang X. 2012. N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists and memantine treatment for Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia and Parkinson’s disease. Current Alzheimer Res, 9(6): 746-758.
  • Patapoutian A, Reichardt LF. 2001. Trk receptors: mediators ofneurotrophin action. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 11(3): 272-280.
  • Pearson RCA, Esiri MM, Hiorns RW, Wilcock GK, Powell TPS. 1985. Anatomical correlates of the distribution of the pathological changes in the neocortex in Alzheimer’s disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 82(13): 4531-4534.
  • Pinsky LE, Burke W, Bird TD. 2001. Why should primary care physicians know about the genetics of dementia? West J Med, 175(6): 412-416.
  • Poduslo SE, Yin X. 2001. A new locus on chromosome 19 linked with late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Neurorep, 12(17): 3759-3761.
  • Raz N, Rodrigue KM, Head D, Kennedy KM, Acker JD. 2004. Differential aging of the medial temporal lobe: a study of a five-year change. Neurol, 62(3): 433-438.
  • Rockwood K, Kirkland S, Hogan DB, MacKnight C, Merry H, Verreault R. 2002. Use of lipid-lowering agents, indication bias, and the risk of dementia in community dwelling elderly people. Arch Neurol Feb, 59(2): 223-227.
  • Saka, E. 2010. Alzheimer Hastalığı Patofizyolojisi: Deneysel ve Genetik Bulgular. Turkish J Geriatrics, 3: 21-26.
  • Schindowski K, Belarbi K, Buee L. 2008. Neurotrophic factors in Alzheimer’s disease: role of axonal transport. Genes, brain and behavior, 7(1): 43-56.
  • Sherrington R, Rogaev EI, Liang Y, Rogaeva EA, Levesque G, Ikeda M. 1995. Cloning of a gene bearing missense mutations in early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease. Nature, 375(6534): 754-760.
  • Simic G, Kostovic I, Winblad B, Bogdanovic N. 1997. Volume and number of neurons of the human hippocampal formation in normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease. J Comp Neurol, 379(4): 482-494.
  • Skullerand K. 1985. Variations in the size of the human brain: influence of age, sex, body length, body mass index, alcoholism, Alzheimer changes, and cerebral atherosclerosis. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl, 102: 1-94.
  • Sloane PD, Zimmerman S, Suchindran C. 2002. The public health impact of Alzheimer’s disease, 2000 –2050: potential implication of treatment advances. Annu Rev Public Health, 23(1): 213-231.
  • Snowdon DA, Tully CL, Smith CD. 2000. Serum folate and the severity of atrophy of the neocortex in Alzheimer disease: findings from the Nun study. Am J Clin Nutr, 71(4): 993-998.
  • Sonkusare SK, Kaul CL, Ramarao P. 2005. Dementia of Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative disorders—memantine, a new hope. Pharm Res, 51(1): 1-17.
  • Stern Y, Mayeux R, Sano M, Hauser WA, Bush T. 1987. Predictors of disease course in patients with probable Alzheimer’s disease. Neurol, 37(10): 1649-1653.
  • Tanzi RE, Bertram L. 2001. New frontiers in Alzheimer's disease genetics. Neuron, 32(2): 181-184.
  • Taş F, Erdoğan E. 2020. Sıçan ependim hücrelerinde aquaporin 4 kanallarının immünohistokimyasal dağılımı ve glimfatik sisteme etkisi. Ahi Evran Medic J, 4(2): 41-46.
  • Tebar F, Bohlander SK, Sorkin A. 1999. Clathrin assembly lymphoid myeloid leukemia (CALM) protein: localization in endocytic-coated pits, interactions with clathrin, and the impact of overexpression on clathrin-mediated traffic. Mol Biol Cell, 10(8): 2687-2702.
  • Trichopoulos D, Lagiou P. 2004. Mediterranean diet and cardiovascular epidemiology. Eur J Epidemiol, 19(1): 7-8.
  • Van Duijn CM, Meijer H, Witteman JCM. 1996. Estrogen, apolipoprotein E and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Ageing, 17: 79.
  • Van Duijn CM. 1999. Hormone replacement therapy and Alzheimer’s disease. Maturitas, 31(3): 201-205.
  • Wang XP, Ding HL. 2008. Alzheimer’s disease: epidemiology, genetics, and beyond. Neurosci Bul, 24(2): 105-109.
  • Weissmiller AM, Wu C. 2012. Current advances in using neurotrophic factors to treat neurodegenerative disorders. Translational Neurodegeneration, 1(1): 1-9.
  • Yan Q, Zhang J, Liu H, Babu-Khan S, Vassar R, Biere AL, Landreth G. 2003. Anti-inflammatory drug therapy alters β-amyloid processing and deposition in an animal model of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci, 23(20): 7504-7509.
  • Yao PJ, Petralia RS, Bushlin I, Wang Y, Furukawa K. 2005. Synaptic distribution of the endocytic accessory proteins AP180 and CALM. J Comp Neurol, 481(1): 58-69.
  • Zandi PP, Anthony JC, Khachaturian AS. 2004. Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements: The Cache County Study. Arch Neurol, 61(1): 82-88.
Yıl 2022, Cilt: 5 Sayı: 2, 322 - 327, 01.05.2022
https://doi.org/10.19127/bshealthscience.1064168

Öz

Kaynakça

  • Alzheimer A. 1907. Uber eine eigenartige Erkrankung der Hirnrinde. Allg. Zeitschrife Psychiatr, 64: 146-148.
  • Aronson MK, Ooi WL, Geva DL, Masur D, Blau A, Frishman W. 1991. Dementia: age-dependent incidence, prevalence, and mortality in the old old. Arch Internal Medic, 151(5): 989-992.
  • Bertram L, McQueen MB, Mullin K, Blacker D, Tanzi RE. 2007. Systematic meta-analyses of Alzheimer disease genetic association studies: the AlzGene database. Nat Genet, 39: 17-23.
  • Bolatlı G. 2021. Limbik Sistem. In: Taş F (ed) Nörobilim Alanında Multidisipliner Yaklaşımlar. İksad Publications, Ankara, Turkey, pp: 182.
  • Breitner MD, MPH JC. 1996. The role of anti-inflammatory drugs in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Annual Rev Medic, 47(1): 401-411.
  • Castellani RJ, Rolston RK, Smith MA. 2010. Alzheimer disease. Disease-a-month, 56(9): 484-546.
  • Chong PL, Garic D, Shen MD, Lundgaard I, Schwichtenberg AJ. 2022. Sleep, cerebrospinal fluid, and the glymphatic system: A systematic review. Sleep Medic Rev, 61: 101572.
  • Clark CM, Ewbank D, Lee VM-Y, Trojanowski JQ. 1998. Molecular pathology of Alzheimer’s disease: neuronal cytoskeletal abnormalities. In: Growdon JH, Rossor MN (eds) The dementias Vol 19 of Blue books of practical neurology. Butterworth–Heinemann, Boston, US, pp: 304.
  • Ernst RL, Hay JW. 1994. The U.S. economic and social costs of Alzheimer’s disease revisited. Am J Pub Health, 84(8): 1261-1264.
  • Fahnestock M, Garzon D, Holsinger RMD, Michalski B. 2002. Neurotrophic factors and Alzheimer’s disease: are we focusing on the wrong molecule? In Ageing and Dementia Current and Future Concepts. Springer, Vienna, Austria, pp: 252.
  • Feng Y, Wang X. 2012. Antioxidant therapies for Alzheimer's disease. Oxidative Medic Cell Longev, 2012: 472932.
  • Goate A, Owen M, James L, Mullan M, Rossor M, Haynes A, Hardy J. 1989. Predisposing locus for Alzheimer's disease on chromosome 21. The Lancet, 333(8634): 352-355.
  • Graves AB, White E, Koepsell TD, Reifler BV, Van Belle G, Larson EB. 1990. The association between head trauma and Alzheimer's disease. Am J Epidemiol, 131(3): 491-501.
  • Grundman M, Delaney P. 2002. Antioxidant strategies for Alzheimer's disease. Proc Nutri Soc, 61(2): 191-202.
  • Hampel H, Mesulam MM, Cuello AC, Farlow MR, Giacobini E, Grossberg GT, Khachaturian ZS. 2018. The cholinergic system in the pathophysiology and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Brain, 141(7): 1917-1933.
  • Helmer C, Joly P, Letenneur L, Commenges D, Dartigues JF. 2001. Mortality with dementia: results from a French prospective community-based cohort. American J Epidemiol, 154(7): 642-648.
  • Henderson VW, Paganini-Hill A, Emanuel CK. 1994. Estrogen replacement therapy in older women. Comparisons between Alzheimer’s disease cases and nondemented control subjects. Arch Neurol, 51: 896-900.
  • Hutton M, Perez-Tur J, Hardy J. 1998. Genetics of Alzheimer’s disease. Essays Biochem, 33: 117-131.
  • Jack CR, Petersen RC, Xu Y. 2000. Rates of hippocampal atrophy correlate with change in clinical status in aging and AD. Neurol, 55(4): 484-489.
  • Jain KK. 2000. Evaluation of memantine for neuroprotection in dementia. Expert Ppinion Investig Drugs, 9(6): 1397-1406.
  • Jiang T, Yu JT, Tian Y, Tan L. 2013. Epidemiology and etiology of Alzheimer’s disease: from genetic to non-genetic factors. Current Alzheimer Res, 10(8): 852-867.
  • Jick H, Zornberg GL, Jick SS, Seshadri S, Drachman DA. 2000. Statins and the risk of dementia. The Lancet, 356(9242): 1627–1631.
  • Kandiah N, Feldman HH. 2009. Therapeutic potential of statins in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci, 283(1-2): 230-234.
  • Kawas C, Resnick S, Morrison A. 1997. A prospective study of estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease: the Baltimore longitudinal study of aging. Neurol, 48(6): 1517–1521.
  • Koppel R. 2002. Alzheimer’s disease: The Costs to U.S. Businesses in 2002. URL: http://www.alz.org/Media/newsreleases/current/062602ADCosts.pdf (access date: January 03, 2022). Lane CA, Hardy J, Schott JM. 2018. Alzheimer's disease. European J Neurol, 25(1): 59–70.
  • Lendon CL, Ashall F, Goate AM. 1997. Exploring the etiology of Alzheimer disease using molecular genetics. Jama, 277(10): 825-831.
  • Li Q, Wu Y, Chen J, Xuan A, Wang X. 2021. Microglia and immunotherapy in Alzheimer’s disease. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 145(3): 273-278.
  • Lovestone S, Howard R. 1995. Alzheimer’s disease: a treatment in sight? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 59(6): 566-567.
  • Maneno MK, Lee E, Wutoh AK, Zuckerman IH, Jackson P, Lombardo FA. 2006. National patterns of dementia treatment among elderly ambulatory patients. J Natl Med Assoc, 98(3): 430-435.
  • Massoud F, Gauthier S. 2010. Update on the pharmacological treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. Curr Neuropharmacol, 8(1): 69-80.
  • McKhann G, Drachman D, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price D, Stadlan EM. 1984. Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: Report of the NINCDS‐ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer's Disease. Neurol, 34(7): 939-939.
  • Morris JC. 1991. The neurology of aging: normal versus pathologic change. Geriatrics, 46(8): 47-54.
  • Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL. 2003. Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol, 60(7): 940-946.
  • Mucke L. 2009. Alzheimer's disease. Nature, 461(7266): 895-897.
  • Ohkura T, Isse K, Akazawa K. 1995. Long-term estrogen replacement therapy in female patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type: 7 case reports. Dementia, 6(2): 99-107.
  • Olivares D, Deshpande V, Shi Y, Lahiri D, Greig N, Rogers J, Huang X. 2012. N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists and memantine treatment for Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia and Parkinson’s disease. Current Alzheimer Res, 9(6): 746-758.
  • Patapoutian A, Reichardt LF. 2001. Trk receptors: mediators ofneurotrophin action. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 11(3): 272-280.
  • Pearson RCA, Esiri MM, Hiorns RW, Wilcock GK, Powell TPS. 1985. Anatomical correlates of the distribution of the pathological changes in the neocortex in Alzheimer’s disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 82(13): 4531-4534.
  • Pinsky LE, Burke W, Bird TD. 2001. Why should primary care physicians know about the genetics of dementia? West J Med, 175(6): 412-416.
  • Poduslo SE, Yin X. 2001. A new locus on chromosome 19 linked with late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Neurorep, 12(17): 3759-3761.
  • Raz N, Rodrigue KM, Head D, Kennedy KM, Acker JD. 2004. Differential aging of the medial temporal lobe: a study of a five-year change. Neurol, 62(3): 433-438.
  • Rockwood K, Kirkland S, Hogan DB, MacKnight C, Merry H, Verreault R. 2002. Use of lipid-lowering agents, indication bias, and the risk of dementia in community dwelling elderly people. Arch Neurol Feb, 59(2): 223-227.
  • Saka, E. 2010. Alzheimer Hastalığı Patofizyolojisi: Deneysel ve Genetik Bulgular. Turkish J Geriatrics, 3: 21-26.
  • Schindowski K, Belarbi K, Buee L. 2008. Neurotrophic factors in Alzheimer’s disease: role of axonal transport. Genes, brain and behavior, 7(1): 43-56.
  • Sherrington R, Rogaev EI, Liang Y, Rogaeva EA, Levesque G, Ikeda M. 1995. Cloning of a gene bearing missense mutations in early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease. Nature, 375(6534): 754-760.
  • Simic G, Kostovic I, Winblad B, Bogdanovic N. 1997. Volume and number of neurons of the human hippocampal formation in normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease. J Comp Neurol, 379(4): 482-494.
  • Skullerand K. 1985. Variations in the size of the human brain: influence of age, sex, body length, body mass index, alcoholism, Alzheimer changes, and cerebral atherosclerosis. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl, 102: 1-94.
  • Sloane PD, Zimmerman S, Suchindran C. 2002. The public health impact of Alzheimer’s disease, 2000 –2050: potential implication of treatment advances. Annu Rev Public Health, 23(1): 213-231.
  • Snowdon DA, Tully CL, Smith CD. 2000. Serum folate and the severity of atrophy of the neocortex in Alzheimer disease: findings from the Nun study. Am J Clin Nutr, 71(4): 993-998.
  • Sonkusare SK, Kaul CL, Ramarao P. 2005. Dementia of Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative disorders—memantine, a new hope. Pharm Res, 51(1): 1-17.
  • Stern Y, Mayeux R, Sano M, Hauser WA, Bush T. 1987. Predictors of disease course in patients with probable Alzheimer’s disease. Neurol, 37(10): 1649-1653.
  • Tanzi RE, Bertram L. 2001. New frontiers in Alzheimer's disease genetics. Neuron, 32(2): 181-184.
  • Taş F, Erdoğan E. 2020. Sıçan ependim hücrelerinde aquaporin 4 kanallarının immünohistokimyasal dağılımı ve glimfatik sisteme etkisi. Ahi Evran Medic J, 4(2): 41-46.
  • Tebar F, Bohlander SK, Sorkin A. 1999. Clathrin assembly lymphoid myeloid leukemia (CALM) protein: localization in endocytic-coated pits, interactions with clathrin, and the impact of overexpression on clathrin-mediated traffic. Mol Biol Cell, 10(8): 2687-2702.
  • Trichopoulos D, Lagiou P. 2004. Mediterranean diet and cardiovascular epidemiology. Eur J Epidemiol, 19(1): 7-8.
  • Van Duijn CM, Meijer H, Witteman JCM. 1996. Estrogen, apolipoprotein E and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Ageing, 17: 79.
  • Van Duijn CM. 1999. Hormone replacement therapy and Alzheimer’s disease. Maturitas, 31(3): 201-205.
  • Wang XP, Ding HL. 2008. Alzheimer’s disease: epidemiology, genetics, and beyond. Neurosci Bul, 24(2): 105-109.
  • Weissmiller AM, Wu C. 2012. Current advances in using neurotrophic factors to treat neurodegenerative disorders. Translational Neurodegeneration, 1(1): 1-9.
  • Yan Q, Zhang J, Liu H, Babu-Khan S, Vassar R, Biere AL, Landreth G. 2003. Anti-inflammatory drug therapy alters β-amyloid processing and deposition in an animal model of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci, 23(20): 7504-7509.
  • Yao PJ, Petralia RS, Bushlin I, Wang Y, Furukawa K. 2005. Synaptic distribution of the endocytic accessory proteins AP180 and CALM. J Comp Neurol, 481(1): 58-69.
  • Zandi PP, Anthony JC, Khachaturian AS. 2004. Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements: The Cache County Study. Arch Neurol, 61(1): 82-88.
Toplam 62 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Sağlık Kurumları Yönetimi
Bölüm Derleme
Yazarlar

Fikri Erdemci 0000-0001-8083-0183

Fırat Aşır 0000-0002-6384-9146

Fatih Taş 0000-0001-9817-4241

Yayımlanma Tarihi 1 Mayıs 2022
Gönderilme Tarihi 27 Ocak 2022
Kabul Tarihi 26 Şubat 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022 Cilt: 5 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Erdemci, F., Aşır, F., & Taş, F. (2022). Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches. Black Sea Journal of Health Science, 5(2), 322-327. https://doi.org/10.19127/bshealthscience.1064168
AMA Erdemci F, Aşır F, Taş F. Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches. BSJ Health Sci. Mayıs 2022;5(2):322-327. doi:10.19127/bshealthscience.1064168
Chicago Erdemci, Fikri, Fırat Aşır, ve Fatih Taş. “Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches”. Black Sea Journal of Health Science 5, sy. 2 (Mayıs 2022): 322-27. https://doi.org/10.19127/bshealthscience.1064168.
EndNote Erdemci F, Aşır F, Taş F (01 Mayıs 2022) Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches. Black Sea Journal of Health Science 5 2 322–327.
IEEE F. Erdemci, F. Aşır, ve F. Taş, “Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches”, BSJ Health Sci., c. 5, sy. 2, ss. 322–327, 2022, doi: 10.19127/bshealthscience.1064168.
ISNAD Erdemci, Fikri vd. “Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches”. Black Sea Journal of Health Science 5/2 (Mayıs 2022), 322-327. https://doi.org/10.19127/bshealthscience.1064168.
JAMA Erdemci F, Aşır F, Taş F. Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches. BSJ Health Sci. 2022;5:322–327.
MLA Erdemci, Fikri vd. “Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches”. Black Sea Journal of Health Science, c. 5, sy. 2, 2022, ss. 322-7, doi:10.19127/bshealthscience.1064168.
Vancouver Erdemci F, Aşır F, Taş F. Etiology and Histopathology of Alzheimer’s Disease and Current Approaches. BSJ Health Sci. 2022;5(2):322-7.